Do you know what the invention of the telephone, the Post-it note and the discovery of Velcro have in common? All were discovered by chance or "happy accident" or even when scientists were looking for something entirely different. Usually scientific progress is associated with rigorous research and analysis, but it’s not always the case.
你是否知道电话机、即时贴、尼龙搭扣的发明有何相似之处?它们都是不期而至或叫“意外之喜”甚或产生于科学家原本寻求完全不一样的事物之时。科学发展通常需要严谨的研究和分析,但很多实例却又不仅限于此。
Chance is not enough. The scientist or inventor must have a prepared and open mind, to detect and understand the importance of the unforeseen incident and to use it constructively. "In the field of observation, chance favours only the prepared mind" said French scientist Louis Pasteur in 1854.
机会当然不是唯一条件。科学家或发明家必须具备有所准备且又开放的思维,从而可以发现并理解未预见事件的重要性,并创造性地利用这些发现。“在观察领域,机会只会垂青有所准备的头脑”法国科学家路易.巴斯德 Louis Pasteur 1854年如是说。
Throughout the centuries, pioneers of science opened the world to us with great breakthroughs in all areas of life. They were particularly numerous in the field of chemistry - take a look at this Timeline of Petrochemistry Discoveries for many examples.
几个世纪以来,科学先驱们在生活的各个领域通过巨大的创新为人们展现了全新的世界。在化学领域这样的创新尤为瞩目 – 顺着这条石化创新时间轴可以找到很多这样的例证。
1835
PVC (Plastics) 聚氯乙烯(塑料)
Henri Victor Regnault, a French chemist and physicist, mainly studied gases and experimented with vinyl chloride gas. Once, he left a sample sitting in the sun. He was surprised to find a white solid at the bottom of the flask. This turned out to be polyvinyl chloride, more commonly known as PVC
Henri Victor Regnault,法国化学家和物理学家,主要研究气体和实验氯乙烯气体。 一次,他留了一个样品放在阳光下。他惊讶地发现在烧瓶底部有白色固体。结果证明这是聚氯乙烯,或更常称为PVC。
It was not until 80 years later, in 1912, that German chemist Dr. Fritz Klatte developed a new process for producing polyvinyl chloride (PVC) using sunlight. He became the first inventor to receive a patent for PVC, yet he failed to realise the potential it had. He attempted to use PVC in commercial products, but difficulties in processing the rigid, sometimes brittle polymer frustrated his efforts.
直到80年后,1912年,德国化学家Fritz Klatte博士开发了一种使用阳光生产聚氯乙烯(PVC)的新工艺。他成为第一个获得PVC专利的发明者,但他没有意识到它的潜力。他试图在商业产品中使用PVC,但是加工这种硬质有时是脆性的聚合物之困难使他的努力不断受挫。
No real use for PVC was found until an American inventor, Waldo Semon, discovered a method to plasticise PVC in 1926. He blended it with various additives. The result was a more flexible material that was easy to use in many ways.
直到美国发明者Waldo Semon在1926年发现了一种塑化PVC的方法之后,才发现PVC的真正用途。他将它与各种添加剂混合。其结果就是一种多用途材料,极易使用于各个方面。
The material proved to be perfect for making shower curtains. Also, it’s waterproof, so designers started to use it for many products such as golf balls and shoe heels. Today, PVC is used in hundreds of products such as raincoats, electric wires coatings, window frames, floor tiles, paints, water pipes and bottles.
PVC被证明很适合制作浴帘。此外,也有防水性,所以设计师开始使用其制作许多产品,如高尔夫球和鞋跟。 今天,PVC用于成百上千种产品,如雨衣,电线涂层,窗框,地砖,油漆,水管和瓶子。
1839
Polystyrene 聚苯乙烯
It all started in 1839 when Eduard Simon, a pharmacist in Berlin, Germany, discovered polystyrene by accident. Simon tried to distil a natural resin called storax. During distillation, he obtained an oily substance that he named “styrol”. Several days later, he found out that the sample had thickened, presumably due to oxidation. Simon didn’t know he had discovered polystyrene.
一切始于1839年,德国柏林的药剂师Eduard Simon意外发现了聚苯乙烯。西蒙试图蒸馏一种名为storax的天然树脂。在蒸馏期间,他获得了一种油性物质,他称为“styrol”。几天后,他发现样品已增厚,可能是由于氧化。西蒙不知道他发现了聚苯乙烯。
The German chemist Hermann Staudinger was the first to recognise in 1920 that polystyrene is made up of many styrene molecules joined together in a chain. Building on Staudinger's observations, in 1929 the scientists at thechemical company BASF developed a way to commercially manufacture polystyrene. A year later the era of large-scale production started. The Dow Chemical Company introduced STYRONTM polystyrene resins in 1938.
德国化学家赫尔曼·施陶丁格Staudinger在1920年第一个认识到聚苯乙烯是由许多苯乙烯分子连接在一起的链。基于施陶丁格的观察,1929年,巴斯夫的科学家开发了一种商业化制造聚苯乙烯的方法。一年后,大规模生产的时代开始了。陶氏化学公司在1938年推出了STYRON TM聚苯乙烯树脂。
Today, polystyrene is used in making many products, whenever colourful and cheap plastic is needed. Solid polystyrene comes in many shapes and forms, from plastic cutlery to CD "jewel" cases. Polystyrene became really popular from 1951, with the invention of polystyrene foam, called Styropore® by BASF. Polystyrene foam is used for insulation, packaging, and food containers such as cups, egg cartons, disposable plates and trays.
今天,聚苯乙烯被用于制造各种产品,特别是用到多彩而便宜的塑料的产品。固体聚苯乙烯有许多形状和形式,从塑料餐具到CD“珠宝”盒。由于发明了聚苯乙烯泡沫,巴斯夫称为Styropore®,1951年后聚苯乙烯变得广受欢迎。聚苯乙烯泡沫用于绝缘,包装和食品容器如杯子,蛋盒,一次性板和托盘。
1856
Synthetic dyes 合成染料
Before the end of the 19th century, we used natural materials such as bark, berries, seaweed and lichens to dye fabrics. Natural dyes were ultimately supplanted by synthetic dyes when William Henry Perkin discovered the first synthetic dye, mauve, in 1856.
十九世纪末以前,我们使用天然材料,如树皮,浆果,海藻和地衣印染织物。当威廉·亨利·珀金在1856年发现了第一个合成染料,淡紫色mauve,天然染料最终被合成染料取代。
18 year old William Perkin, a gifted student of the Royal College of Chemistry in London, was looking for a way to develop an artificial form of quinine from coal tar. Quinine was needed to treat British troops suffering from malaria in India. During his experiments, instead of quinine, young Perkin was left with some purplish powder. More experimentation led him to realise that this substance worked as a textile dye which was colourfast and resistant to light. It was originally called aniline purple, but was renamed mauve (French for the mallow flower) when it reached a peak of popularity.
18岁的威廉·佩金Perkin是伦敦皇家化学学院天才学生,当时正在寻找一种从煤焦油中提炼人造奎宁的方法。在印度的英国军队遭受疟疾之苦需要奎宁治疗。实验中,年轻的佩金获得了一些紫色粉末,但不是奎宁。随后的实验使他意识到这种物质可作为一种纺织染料,具有着色力和耐光性。它最初被称为苯胺紫,而当后来家喻户晓时,更名为淡紫色mauve(法语意为冬葵花)。
This colour was propelled in fashion by the choice of mauve gowns by the Queen Victoria and Empress Eugenie (wife of Napoleon III). Around 1860, if you weren’t wearing mauve you were definitely not fashionable! Before Perkin’s discovery huge quantities of shells of a species of Mediterranean mollusc were needed to get a purple colour. Perkin’s mauve therefore allowed the masses to own the latest fashionable colours.
这种颜色由维多利亚女王和欧也妮皇后(拿破仑三世的妻子)所崇尚的淡紫色长袍而推波助澜。到1860年,谁不穿淡紫色就绝对不算时尚!在Perkin发现之前,需要一种地中海软体动物的大量贝壳来获得紫色。因此,珀金的淡紫色让大众拥有了最新的时尚色彩。
The discovery of mauve really boosted the petrochemical industry. An explosion of young chemists suddenly realised organic chemistry was exciting, profitable and of great use. More than 7,000 synthetic colorants are presently in commercial use, differing in fastness and other properties and requiring different methods of application. Most of the dyes are used by the textile industry, but the leather, paper, food and cosmetic industries are also important users. Artificial dyes are also used in modern medicine. They play a crucial role in many aspects of genetic identification. Researchers have also found a revolutionary use for dyes in an important treatment of cancer, in which tumours are stained before being blasted with a high-precision laser.
淡紫色的发现真正推动了石化行业。爆发式涌现的年轻化学家突然意识到有机化学是令人兴奋、有利可图和用途巨大的。目前有超过7,000种合成着色剂已经商用,着色力和其它性质方面各不相同,施用方法也有不同。大多数染料被纺织工业使用,但是皮革,造纸,食品和化妆品工业也是重要的用户。人造染料也用于现代医学。它们在遗传鉴定的许多方面起关键作用。研究人员还发现了染料在至关重要的癌症治疗中的革命性用途,亦即将肿瘤在经染色后用高精度激光杀灭。
1879
Synthetic rubber 合成橡胶
Natural rubber has been collected in the form of latex for a very long time and rubber balls have been found from as far back as 1600 BC! It was also used to make rubber shoes, strips to hold stone and metal tools, water-resistant cloth and more. In the 1890s, more people began to use cars and car tyres, which created increased demand for rubber. The first form of synthetic rubber was created in 1879. Large-scale commercial production of synthetic rubber first started in Germany during World War I. Investigations into synthetic rubber continued after the War and this led, in 1933, to the invention by German scientists of a type of synthetic rubber, Buna-S. Buna-S is made up of styrene and butadiene, and mainly used to make tyres for cars.
人类在很长时间里以胶乳的形式收集天然橡胶,现在发现,早在公元前1600年就有了橡胶球!它也被用于制作橡胶鞋,捆绑石材和金属工具的胶带,防水布等。十九世纪90年代,更多的人开始使用汽车和汽车轮胎,这增加了对橡胶的需求。合成橡胶的第一种形式是在1879年发明的。合成橡胶的大规模商业生产首先在第一次世界大战期间在德国开始。战争后继续对合成橡胶的研究,并且引导德国科学家在1933年发明了一类合成橡胶,Buna-S。 Buna-S由苯乙烯和丁二烯组成,主要用于制造汽车轮胎。
At the same time, in the USA, investigations focused on different materials. Neoprene was invented in 1931 by DuPont scientists after they attended a lecture by a Belgian-born priest and professor of chemistry, Dr Julius Nieuwland.
与此同时,在美国,研究焦点集中在不一样的材料。1931年,杜邦科学家发明了氯丁橡胶,他们当时参加了一个比利时出生的牧师和化学教授,朱利叶斯·尼乌兰博士的讲座。
Neoprene was considered superior to rubber in many ways. It is resistant to sunlight, abrasion and extreme temperatures. One of the most popular uses of neoprene is wetsuits. In wetsuits, neoprene traps water between the wetsuit and the wearer's skin. Body heat warms the water against the skin, which works to reduce heat loss from the body, so that divers and surfers can swim comfortably in cold water.
氯丁橡胶被认为在许多方面优于橡胶。耐日晒,耐磨和耐极端温度。氯丁橡胶最受欢迎的用途之一是潜水衣。用于潜水服时,氯丁橡胶吸收潜水服和穿着者的皮肤之间的水。身体热量加热紧贴皮肤的水,从而减少热量从身体的损失,使潜水员和冲浪者可以在冷水中舒适地游泳。
The insulating and protective properties of neoprene have made it a popular material in products as diverse as scuba-diving gear to protective gloves, protective covers for items such as mobile phones but also in corrosion-resistant coatings and adhesives.
氯丁橡胶的绝缘和防护性能使其成为各种产品中流行的材料,例如水肺潜水装备,防护手套,手机等物品的防护罩,以及耐腐蚀涂层和粘合剂。
1925
Bakelite 电木
Setting out to make a substitute to shellac, a resin-like natural substance, the Belgian Leo Hendrik Baekeland invented the world’s first true plastic. It was later named bakelite after him, and transformed the world. Based on the results achieved with phenol resins by Carl Heinrich Meyer, Baekeland began to investigate the reactions between phenol and formaldehyde, but it is only in 1909 that the discovery of bakelite was formally announced.
比利时的Leo Hendrik Baekland为寻求虫胶,一种树脂状的天然物质,的替代品,发明了世界上第一个真正的塑料。它后来被以他命名为Bakelite (电木),改变了世界。基于Carl Heinrich Meyer对酚醛树脂所取得的结果,Baekland开始研究苯酚和甲醛之间的反应,但直到1909年,Bakelite的发现才被正式宣布。
Bakelite was the first synthetic plastic to be invented. Bakelite doesn’t melt or go soft, so it was soon found to have many uses, especially in the rapidly growing automobile and radio industries. When bakelite appeared in the radio industry in the 1930s, wooden radios rapidly became obsolete, turning the radio from a luxury object into a product that anyone could afford.
电木是第一个发明的合成塑料。电木不熔化也不软化,所以很快就发现有很多用途,特别是在快速增长的汽车和无线电工业。当电木在二十世纪30年代出现在无线电行业时,木制收音机迅速过时,从而将收音机从一个奢侈品变成一个任何人都能买得起的产品。
Bakelite is also used for domestic purposes, as electrical insulators for instance, where it proved to be more effective than any other material available – so effective in fact that it is still used as such today. It is resistant to heat and electricity, shatter-proof and does not crack, fade, crease or discolor from exposure to sunlight, humidity or sea salt.
电木也用于家庭用途,例如作为电绝缘体,并证明比任何其它材料更有效 - 事实上如此有效的,至今仍在应用。它耐热,耐电,防碎,暴露在日光,湿汽或海盐中也不开裂,褪色,折皱或掉色。
1928
Synthetic fuels 合成燃料
Synthetic fuel, also known as synfuel, is fuel obtained from coal, natural gas or biomass. Synthetic fuels are often referred to as Coal-To-Liquids (CTL), Gas-To-Liquids (GTL) or Biomass-To-Liquids (BTL), depending on the material used to produce the fuel.
合成燃料,也称为Synfuel,是从煤,天然气或生物质获得的燃料。依据燃料生产的原料,合成燃料通常被称为煤变油(CTL),气变油(GTL)或生物柴油(BTL)。
The quest for alternative fuel to oil is not new. The Fischer-Tropsch process is the most common for converting coal, biomass or natural gas into synthetic fuels. It was developed by the German researchers Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch in 1925. During World War II, petroleum-poor but coal-rich Germany used this process extensively to produce fuels for planes and tanks. South Africa did the same from 1955, during the embargo under the apartheid regime.
寻找石油替代用燃油的努力并非新鲜事物。费 - 托法最为常见,是将煤,生物质或天然气转化为合成燃料。它由德国研究员Franz Fischer和Hans Tropsch在1925年开发。在第二次世界大战期间,贫油但富煤的德国广泛地使用这个过程为飞机和坦克生产燃料。南非自1955年起因种族隔离制度遭禁运期间也这样做。
Over the decades, the Fischer-Tropsch process has been continually refined and adjusted, most notably in South Africa and Malaysia. For instance, it is used today by South African Airways in a 50/50 blend of Coal-To-Liquid.
几十年来,费 - 托法不断完善和调整,最突出的是在南非和马来西亚。例如,今天由南非航空公司使用煤变油50/50混合物。
The most environmentally-friendly synthetic fuel is based on the Biomass-To-Liquids technology, i.e. a chemical process that transforms biomass into liquid fuels. Waste plant material like wood chips and straw are used instead of food crops like soybean and rapeseed, which are the main sources of today’s biofuels. This type of fuel has an enormous potential for reducing CO2 emissions. This technology is still very expensive but it is expected to play a huge role over the next twenty years, once it becomes cheaper to produce.
最环保的合成燃料基于生物质变油技术,即将生物质转化为液体燃料的化学过程。使用诸如木屑和秸秆的废植物材料代替食物作物,如大豆和油菜籽,这是当今生物燃料的主要来源。 这种类型的燃料具有减少CO2排放的巨大潜力。这种技术仍然非常昂贵,但是在未来二十年,一旦生产成本更低,预计将发挥巨大作用。
With their roots in the early part of the 20th century, these technologies continue to draw the attention of many countries, in particular those that need to import a lot of oil from overseas. Some of the world’s best engineers, scientists and academics are engaged in research full of promise for the future of the planet.
这些植根于20世纪初技术继续吸引许多国家的关注,特别是那些需要从海外进口大量石油的国家。 世界上一些最优秀的工程师,科学家和学者都在从事着这些对地球未来充满希望的研究工作。
1930
Plexiglas ® 压克力
Plexiglas® was discovered by accident in Röhm laboratory in Germany. In 1933, Otto Röhm succeeded in developing a method for polymerising methyl methacrylate. He had originally intended to use it as a drying oil in varnishes, but soon realised that he could also use it as a coating for safety glass. In 1935, one of his research associates was experimenting with an acrylic polymer to see if it would bind two sheets of glass. Instead of acting as glue, it dried into a lightweight, clear plastic sheet. Otto immediately thought it could be used instead of glass.
Plexiglas®是在德国Röhm实验室偶然发现的。1933年,Otto Röhm成功地开发了一种聚合甲基丙烯酸甲酯的方法。他最初打算用它作为清漆中的干性油,但很快意识到他也可以用它作为安全玻璃的涂层。1935年,他的研究助理之一正在试验丙烯酸聚合物,看看它是否会黏合两张玻璃。结果其没有发挥黏胶的作用,却干燥成一张轻盈,透明的塑料片。奥托马上想到这可以用来代替玻璃。
It was another three years until Plexiglas® could be manufactured inexpensively, and ways to use it were discovered. Röhm himself experimented with various uses: he used Plexiglas® in his car windows and even his reading glasses! Among the many uses Röhm's researchers explored were musical instruments. The most important applications of Plexiglas®, however, were not for transparent flutes but for airplanes.
又过了三年,Plexiglas®才得以廉价生产,并找到使用它的各种途径。Röhm自己实验了各种用途:他把Plexiglas®用在自己的车窗,甚至阅读眼镜上!在许多应用中,Röhm的研究人员甚至还实验了乐器。然而,Plexiglas®最重要的应用不是透明长笛,而是用于飞机。
Plexiglas® proved transparent, strong, and tough enough to be used in the cockpits of military aircraft. In 1940, Plexiglas® was used in the nose-cones of war planes, and three years later, acrylic aircraft canopies were being produced. In 1974, acrylic sheets stiffened with reinforced plastic were used for the first time in exterior body panels of a car. Today Plexiglas® is manufactured in forms ranging from clear to opaque; it is nearly unbreakable and is used in place of glass in airplanes, automobiles, light fixtures, aquariums, signs, and household appliances.
Plexiglas®业经证明足够透光,强韧,坚硬,可用于军用飞机的驾驶舱。1940年,Plexiglas®被用于战斗机的鼻锥,三年后,压克力飞机檐篷开始生产。1974年,用增强塑料加固的压克力板材首次用于汽车的车身外板。今天,Plexiglas®制品从透明到不透明都有; 强度几乎坚不可摧,故而代替玻璃用于飞机,汽车,灯具,水族馆,标牌和家用电器。
1930
Antifreeze and Cooling Agents 防冻剂和冷却剂
Antifreeze and cooling agents have the capacity to stay in liquid form below 0°C because they can retain energy and thus not change their physical state.
防冻剂和冷却剂具有在低于0℃下保持液态的能力,因为它们可以保留能量,因而不改变其物理状态。
The main agents of antifreeze are either methanol, which was the most widely used agent until the late 1930s, ethylene glycol that became available in 1937 or propylene glycol which is used as antifreeze where ethylene glycol would be inappropriate such as in food processing systems or in pipes in homes.
防冻剂的主要成份是甲醇 – 至二十世纪30年代后期使用最为广泛,或乙二醇 - 1937年起实现量产,或丙二醇 - 用于乙二醇不合适的场合,例如食品加工系统或家用管道中。
Antifreeze is added into car radiators to prevent freezing when it is very cold and also keep your car from overheating on very hot days. Originally, motorists drove cars without heaters or side windows, making winter driving very unpleasant. Also, it was extremely difficult to start a car in cold weather. The development of car heaters and side windows and the improvement of engines and lubricants led to more winter driving and the requirement of antifreeze/coolant.
防冻剂添加到汽车散热器,以防止低温结冻,也防止车辆在热天过热。原先,驾驶者开车没有加热器或侧窗,使冬季驾驶非常不适。此外,在寒冷天气启动车辆极其困难。汽车加热器和侧窗的开发以及发动机和润滑油的改进使冬季驾驶更为频繁,也增进了防冻剂/冷却剂的需求。
1933
Solvents 溶剂
Have you ever wondered why paint flows? Or why the ink on a page of a magazine does not smudge? Or why you see through your car window? The answer is solvents: a liquid that dissolves, suspends or extracts other materials.
你是否想过油漆为什么会流淌?或者为什么杂志页面上的墨水没有糊作一团?还有为什么你透视你的车窗?答案是溶剂:溶解,悬浮或萃取其他材料的液体。
Solvents have been well known since the 1930s and have been in general use for nearly 50 years. They played a vital role in the World War II effort: as an ingredient for aviation fuel, in the production of parachutes and other nylon products, in the manufacturing of adhesives and in the rubber industry.
溶剂自20世纪30年代以来就已众所周知,并已经普遍使用将近50年。它们在第二次世界大战的争斗中发挥了至关重要的作用:用作航空燃料添加剂,用于降落伞和其它尼龙产品的生产中,用在胶黏剂的制造和橡胶工业中。
There are many types of chemical solvents that are produced from oil refinery gases (known as naphtha). There are several types of solvents:
从炼厂气(亦即石脑油)中可生产多种化学溶剂。溶剂类型包括:
Oxygenated solvents are useful for many products, such as paints, pharmaceuticals, inks, cosmetics and detergents. Chlorinated solvents are used for dry cleaning and metal cleaning, in pharmaceuticals and electronics. Hydrocarbon solvents are used in ink for the printing industry, aluminium rolling, to make plastic foams for insulation in refrigerators and freezers.
氧化溶剂可用于许多产品,例如油漆,医药,油墨,化妆品和洗涤剂。氯化溶剂用于干洗和金属清洗,用于医药和电子产品。烃类溶剂用于印刷工业的油墨,轧铝,以及制备冰箱和制冷机隔热塑料泡沫。
1935
Polyethylene 聚乙烯
In 1933, two organic chemists working for the UK’s Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) Research Laboratory were testing chemicals under high pressure conditions. They produced a white waxy material. They tried to repeat the experiment, but couldn’t obtain the mystery substance. It was not until 1935 that another ICI chemist, Michael Perrin, worked out that the ICI chemists had oxygen in their apparatus by accident. Then he developed a reproducible high-pressure synthesis process for the white material, which we now know as polyethylene. This process became the basis for industrial low density polyethylene production, which started in 1939.
1933年,在英国帝国化学工业(ICI)研究实验室工作的两位有机化学家在高压条件下测试化学品。他们获得了一种白色蜡质材料。 他们试图重复实验,却未得到这种神秘物质。直到1935年,另一位ICI化学家Michael Perrin才琢磨出ICI化学家的装置中意外混有氧气。 此后他开发了一种可重复的高压合成工艺生产白色材料,即我们现在称为聚乙烯的材料。这一工艺成为1939年开始的工业化生产低密度聚乙烯的基础。
Polyethylene played a key supporting role during World War II - first as a coating for underwater cables and then as an insulating material for such vital military applications as radar insulation. This is because it was so light and thin that it made placing radar onto airplanes possible; something that could not be done using traditional insulating materials because they weighed too much.
聚乙烯在第二次世界大战期间发挥了重要的辅助作用 - 首先作为水下电缆的涂层,然后作为绝缘材料用于至关重要的军事目的如雷达绝缘。由于其既轻又薄,使得雷达可安装在飞机上; 使用传统的绝缘材料不能做到这一点,因为它们太重了。
It was not until after the war, though, that the material became a tremendous hit with consumers – and it keeps getting more popular. Polyethylene is produced in different grades (from very low density to high density) and its mechanical properties depend on how it’s produced. High Density polyethylene conquered its first mass market in the toy sector during the 1950s: it was the material used for Hula-Hoop rings.
直到战后,这种材料才使消费者受益匪浅 – 并不断广受追捧。聚乙烯具有不同等级(从非常低密度到高密度),其机械性能取决于合成方式。高密度聚乙烯在二十世纪50年代第一次占领了大众市场 - 玩具行业:它是用于呼啦圈的材料。
Today, polyethylene is used to make such common items as sticky tape, soda bottles, milk jugs, dry-cleaning bags, pipes, water containers, etc.
1937
Nylon ® 尼龙
The American chemist, Wallace Hume Carothers, could never have known that he one day would be so popular with ladies. His popularity with women literally hung by a silken thread: in 1935, he created a fibre which was as fine as silk, but stronger than cotton - nylon.
美国化学家华莱士休姆·卡罗瑟斯,从没想到自己有朝一日会受到女士们如此欢迎。他的女人缘实际上悬于一根丝线:1935年,他发明了一种纤维,像丝一样细滑,比棉更强 - 尼龙。
Nylon® was intended to be a synthetic replacement for silk for example in stockings, and also replaced animal hair in toothbrushes. The stockings were unveiled in 1939, to great public acclaim. On 15 May 1940, when nylon stockings first appeared on the American market, they created a sensation. In New York City alone, four million pairs were sold in just a few hours!
Nylon被用作丝绸的合成替代品,例如用在长袜中,并也替代牙刷中的动物毛发。这些丝袜在1939年亮相,受到广泛好评。1940年5月15日,当尼龙丝袜首次出现在美国市场上时,它们带来了一片激情。仅在纽约市一地,仅几小时就售出了四百万双。
Nylon® was used in parachutes, ropes, flak vests, vehicle tires, combat uniforms and many other military applications after the United States entered World War II in 1941, making stockings hard to find until the war's end. Nylon fibers are now used in fabrics, bridal veils, carpets, guitar strings and ropes. Solid nylon is used for mechanical parts and in engineering.
1941年美国加入第二次世界大战之后,尼龙被用于降落伞,绳索,防弹背心,车辆轮胎,战斗服和许多其他军事应用,使得丝袜再难找到,直到战争结束。尼龙纤维现在用于织物,新娘面纱,地毯,吉他弦和绳索。固体尼龙用于机械部件和工程。
1938
Polyurethane 聚氨酯
When German chemist Otto Bayer was looking for new macromolecules during the 1930s he began to experiment with isocyanates. Some of his professional colleagues thought he was crazy!
当德国化学家Otto Bayer在20世纪30年代寻找新的大分子时,他开始尝试异氰酸酯。 他的一些专业同事认为他疯了!
In 1937, however, he won the skeptics over with his patent for a new and valuable product. Bayer had brought together isocyanates and polyols as baking additives. When the 2nd World War broke out, the German authorities and the military started to look for new and better varieties of rubber. So, they investigated the properties of elastic polyurethane moulded plastic.
然而,1937年,他用一个有价值的新产品专利赢了这些怀疑论者。 拜耳将异氰酸酯和多元醇混合,并用多元醇作为烘干添加剂。当第二次世界大战爆发时,德国当局和军方开始寻找新的更好的橡胶品种。因此,他们研究了弹性聚氨酯模塑塑料的性能。
One of these tests went wrong, but the result inspired those involved and showed them the path that they should be following. Some of the moulded items came out full of bubbles, and the testing authority made the sarcastic comment: at least it would be useful for manufacturing fake Swiss cheese! Otto Bayer did not hesitate for long and wanted to find out all about this fake cheese. In subsequent tests, he discovered polyurethane foam.
其中一个测试出错了,但结果激发了参与者,并向他们展示了他们应该遵循的路径。 一些模制品充满了气泡,测试当局做出了讽刺的评论:至少它将有助于制造假瑞士奶酪!Otto Bayer没多犹豫,决心彻底了解这个假奶酪。在随后的试验中,他发现了聚氨酯泡沫。
In the war years of 1943 and 1944, polyurethane was used for propeller blades, landing flaps and skids for aircraft - but it was all top secret. During the post-war years, polyurethane became an unstoppable success. It was used for mattresses, furniture padding, and thermal insulation, and still is today. It is also used in paints and varnishes formulations and in adhesives, as well as for sports wear fabrics such as Lycra®.
1943年和1944年战争期间,聚氨酯用于螺旋桨叶片,着陆襟翼和飞机滑行板 - 但属最高机密。战后,聚氨酯的成功势不可挡。它被用于床垫,家具填充和保温,且至今未变。它也用于油漆和清漆的配方和粘合剂,以及运动服织物比如Lycra®。
1941
Teflon ® 聚四氟乙烯
The discovery of Teflon® began with a loud bang. An American chemist,Roy Plunkett, was experimenting with tetrafluoroethylene gas in 1938 in a laboratory in New Jersey. Suddenly, there was a powerful explosion!
To the chemist's astonishment he found that the remains of his apparatus contained a white, waxy powder. Closer investigation revealed that this was a polymer of tetrafluoroethylene, which has many remarkable characteristics.
Teflon®的发现始于一声巨响。1938年美国化学家Roy Plunkett在新泽西一个实验室试验四氟乙烯气体。突然,发生一个剧烈爆炸!
让化学家惊讶的是,他发现自己设备的遗骸中含有白色蜡状粉末。仔细调查发现,这是一种四氟乙烯的聚合物,其具有许多显著的特点。
The new plastic, which was soon given the name Teflon®, is unique because it is impervious to acids, cold and heat. Teflon® is now best-known for its slipperiness - which makes it useful for coating pots and pans for easy cooking and cleaning. This material has also found its way into a wide range of uses that go far beyond the frying pan; from chemical-proof pipes for industrial machinery, through medical injection tubes and all the way to microelectronics. There is still no sign of the Teflon® boom coming to an end.
新的塑料,很快被命名为Teflon®,是独一无二的,因为它不怕酸,冷和热。Teflon®现今最知名的是其滑爽性 - 这使其可用于涂层锅和烤盘,方便烹饪和清洁。这种材料也已经发展出远远超过煎锅的广泛用途; 从工业机械的化学防护管,到医疗注射管和甚或微电子领域。 Teflon®大潮仍未有结束的迹象。
Gore-Tex®, which is a Teflon®-treated synthetic polymer, is an amazing, breathable, waterproof textile found in high-performance clothes such as walking boots and mountain coats. Unlike ordinary synthetic textiles like nylon, Gore-Tex® stops rain from getting in but lets perspiration out. So it keeps you dry on the outside and dry on the inside at the same time.
Gore-Tex®是一种经Teflon®处理的合成聚合物,也是一种具有惊人的透气防水纺织品,用于高性能衣履,如步行靴和登山外套。与普通合成纺织品如尼龙不同,Gore-Tex®防止雨水进入,但让汗水透出。所以可使你内外同时保持干燥。
1946
Polyester 聚酯
The polyester family was largely studied by American chemist Wallace Carothers, who discovered nylon. When DuPont chose to concentrate on promising nylon research, Carothers’ work was resumed by two British chemists, John R. Whinfield and James T. Dickson. Along with some other inventors, in 1941 they created the first polyester fibre. It was formed from ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. It was called Terylene and manufactured by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI).
聚酯家族主要由美国化学家Wallace Carothers研究,他发现了尼龙。当杜邦选择专注于深负众望的尼龙研究时,Carothers的工作由两位英国化学家John R. Whinfield和James T. Dickson重启。1941年,与其他一些发明人一起,他们发明了第一种聚酯纤维。它由乙二醇和对苯二甲酸合成。被称为Terylene,并由Imperial Chemical Industries(ICI)制造。
In 1946, DuPont bought all legal rights for the material and came up with the second polyester fibre which they named Dacron®. It was an inexpensive and durable fibre, so it soon invaded the textile market. It was advertised as a miracle fibre that could be worn for 68 days straight without ironing and it would still not wrinkle.
1946年,杜邦公司购买了该材料的所有合法权利,并发布了他们名为Dacron®的第二种聚酯纤维。这是一种廉价而耐用的纤维,很快占据纺织市场。广告称之为奇迹纤维,可以直接穿戴68天,无需熨烫,仍然不会起皱。
One of the best things about polyester is that it does not absorb water, so most of our outdoor gear is made of this material.
Polyethylene terephthalate is a member of the polyester family which is used in shatterproof bottles for drinks.
聚酯的最大好处之一是不吸水,所以我们大部分户外服装用这种材料制造。
聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯PET也是聚酯家族一员,用于饮料防碎瓶。
1951
Detergents 洗涤剂
Synthetic detergent is a material which washes or cleans laundry, fabrics, dishes or kitchen utensils, as well as hard surfaces. They can be of any form (e.g. liquid, powder, paste, bar, cake, moulded piece, shaped) and be used for household, institutional or industrial purposes.
合成洗涤剂是洗涤或清洁洗衣,织物,盘子或厨房用具以及硬表面的物质。其可做成各种形状(例如液体,粉末,糊状物,棒,饼状物,模制件,成形的),可用于家庭,机构或工业目的。
It is not easy to pinpoint exactly when the detergent industry came into being. The first synthetic detergents seem to have been developed by the Germans in the First World War due to the shortage of fats to make traditional soap. The breakthrough in the development of detergents came in 1946 when the first man-made detergent (containing a surfactant/builder combination) was introduced in the US.
不太容易精确认定洗涤剂行业形成的时间。第一种合成洗涤剂似乎是由第一次世界大战中的德国人开发的,当时因为制造传统肥皂的脂肪不足。1946年,美国引入第一种人造洗涤剂(含有表面活性剂/助洗剂组合),洗涤剂研发的突破从此就到来了。
A surfactant is a "Surface Active Agent" and it is the basic cleaning agent in the area of petrochemistry. Their primary role is to remove dirt. By lowering the surface tension of water, the cleaning solution can quickly “wet” the surface (dishes, fabrics, hard surfaces etc) so dirt and grime can be removed more easily.
表面活性剂是一种“能活化表面的制剂”,是石化领域中的基本清洁剂。其主要作用是去除污垢。通过降低水的表面张力,清洁溶液可以快速“湿润”表面(盘子,织物,硬面等),从而可以更容易地去除污物和污垢。
1954
Polystyrene foam 聚苯乙烯泡沫
From 1949, BASF chemist Fritz Stastny worked on a process to turn polystyrene into foam. Two years later, when he had found the right raising agent and the correct mixture, his work met with success. The simple manufacturing process and the many possible applications soon turned the new foam into one of the most successful plastics. Although it is 98 percent air, Styron® is rugged and durable. It is primarily used as packaging and insulation. By enabling significant savings of fuel oil and gas, it has become one of the most important products for environmental technologies.
1949年起,巴斯夫化学家Fritz Stastny着手研究将聚苯乙烯转化为泡沫的工艺。两年后,他找到了合适的发泡剂和正确的混合物,他的工作终于成功了。简单的制造工艺和许多可能的应用很快就使新的泡沫成为最成功的塑料之一。虽然98%为空气,Styron®坚固耐用。它主要用于包装和绝缘。由于能大幅节省燃油和天然气,它已成为环境技术最重要的产品之一。
A spectacular application of Styron® was seen in 1964, when the freighter Al Kuweit which had sunk in Kuwait harbour was successfully lifted with the help of 2,500 cubic metres of Styron® which had been pumped into the hold. An attempt to file a patent for this process failed as Walt Disney already had the same idea in 1949: in a comic story, Donald Duck comes up with the idea of lifting a sunken ship using ping-pong balls!
1964年Styron®的辉煌应用彰显世人,当时在科威特港沉没的货轮Al Kuweit在2500立方泵入船体的Styron®的辅助下成功浮升。为这个方法申请专利的努力失败了,因为迪斯尼已经在1949年提出了同样的想法:在一个漫画故事,唐老鸭想出了用乒乓球提升沉船的想法!
1960
Polypropylene 聚丙烯
After World War II, polyethylene led to the discovery of another material, polypropylene, in the early 1950s. Often, similar inventions take place at the same time in many different places – due to sharing and exchange of knowledge. Polypropylene was an extreme case, with nine different teams claiming to have invented it! It was a patent attorney's dream scenario, and litigation wasn't resolved until 1989.
第二次世界大战后,聚乙烯导致了另一种材料,聚丙烯,在1950年代初被发现。通常,相似的发明同时在许多不同的地方产生 - 由于知识的共享和交流。聚丙烯是一个极端的情况,有九个不同的团队声称发明了它!这成为任何专利律师的梦想场景,相关诉讼直到1989年才解决。
Polypropylene managed to survive the legal process, and two American chemists working for the Dutch company Phillips Petroleum, Paul Hogan and Robert Banks, are now generally credited as the "official" inventors of the material.
聚丙烯经受了法律程序而存活,两名为荷兰公司Phillips Petroleum工作的美国化学家,Paul Hogan和Robert Banks现在通常被冠以为该材料的“正式”发明人。
Polypropylene is similar to its ancestor, polyethylene, and shares polyethylene's low cost, but is much more robust. It is used in a wide variety of applications, including food packaging, ropes, textiles, reusable containers of various types, loudspeakers, automotive components, and banknotes. Polypropylene resists the high temperatures needed for sterilisation and dish-washing, so it has many medical and household uses.
聚丙烯与其祖先,聚乙烯,相似,既具有聚乙烯的低廉成本,又更为坚固。它被用于各种用途,包括食品包装,绳索,纺织品,各种类型的可重复使用容器,扬声器,汽车部件和钞票。 聚丙烯耐受灭菌和洗碗所需的高温,因此也有许多医疗和家庭用途。
1960
Copolymer 共聚物
A copolymer is a polymer derived from several mixed monomeric species. There are several types of copolymers with structural differences and offering improvement in the properties and performances of each ingredient. Copolymerization methods have been developed since 50 years or so to fulfil the needs of many industries and areas of life. Commercially relevant copolymers include ABS plastics, SBR, Nitrile rubber, etc. just to name a few. Each ingredient is used in different proportions and provides specific properties to the end-product.
共聚物可由几种单体物质混合的聚合物制取。共聚物有多种类型,相互具有结构差异,却都提升了每种组分的特性和性能。共聚方法已经发展了50年左右以满足许多工业和生活领域的需要。有商用价值的共聚物,略提几种,就包括ABS塑料,SBR橡胶,丁腈橡胶等。每种组分含量不同,为最终产品提供特定的性能。
Let's take ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) which is a common example of a copolymer made by polymerizing styrene and acrylonitrile in the presence of polybutadiene. . The most important mechanical properties of ABS are resistance and toughness, but a variety of modifications can be made to improve specific properties such as impact and scratch resistance, brilliance and deepness of colours, long quality life. Because of the combination of its characteristics and processing properties, ABS offers infinite possibilities for industry and industrial design, IT equipment, small and large electrical appliances, packaging, medical devices, etc.
以ABS(丙烯腈丁二烯苯乙烯)为例,作为共聚物的常见实例,其在聚丁二烯存在的条件下通过苯乙烯和丙烯腈聚合而制得。ABS的最重要的机械性能是其抗性和强度,也可以通过各种改性以改进其特定性质,例如抗冲击性和耐刮擦性,颜色的亮度和暗度,延长品质期等。由于其材料特性和加工性能的配合,ABS为工业和工业设计,IT设备,小型和大型电器,包装,医疗设备等提供了无限的可能性。
1965
Superabsorbent 超吸水物
Superabsorbent polymers are polymers that can absorb and retain extremely large amounts of water and aqueous solution relative to its own mass. They are prepared from acrylic acid and a crosslinker by solution or suspension polymerization.
超吸收性聚合物是相对于其自身质量可以吸收和保留极大量水和水溶液的聚合物。它们由丙烯酸和交联剂通过溶液或悬浮液聚合制备。
Until the 1980's water absorbing materials were cellulosic or fibre-based products. In the early 1960’s some work was conducted in the USA on materials to improve water conservation in soil and they developed a resin that came into the form of a gel. These acrylic-based products were further developed into granular polymer and super absorbent fibers. Commercial production of superabsorbent began in Japan in 1978, but it is in 1980 that European countries developed the superabsorbent polymer for use in baby diapers. It revolutionized the diaper industry and diapers were designed to take advantage of the amazing liquid retention ability of the polymer.
直到20世纪80年代,吸水材料都是纤维素或纤维基产品。60年代初,美国在改善土壤水分保持的材料方面开展了一些工作,他们开发了一种凝胶状树脂。这些丙烯酸基产品进一步制成粒状聚合物和超吸收性纤维。超吸收剂的商业生产在1978年开始于日本,而到1980年,欧洲国家开发了用于婴儿尿布的超吸收剂聚合物。它改变了尿布行业,并在尿布设计中利用了聚合物惊人的液体吸收能力。
Today superabsorbent material is widely used in personal care products to absorb fluids in 100 times their weight in water. Consumer applications include baby diapers, training pants, adult incontinence products and external feminine hygiene products. It is also used in medical applications such as therapy packs, surgical pads, medical waste solidification.
今天,超吸收材料广泛用于个人护理产品中,以吸收其在水中重量100倍的液体。日常生活应用包括婴儿尿布,训练内裤,成人失禁产品和女性外用卫生产品。它还用于医疗方面,如治疗包,手术垫,医疗废液固化等。
1970
Kevlar ® 凯夫拉
Stephanie Kwolek didn't have enough money to study medicine, so she joined DuPont as a temporary employee, but the work turned out to be so interesting that she stayed on. Relying on experience, instinct and great determination, she invented one of the modern world's most readily recognised and widely used materials: Kevlar®.
Stephanie Kwolek没有足够的钱学习医学,所以她加入杜邦作为一名临时雇员,而此工作后来变得极有意义,她坚持了下来。依靠经验,本能和极大的决心,她发明了现代世界上最广为人知并广泛使用的材料之一:Kevlar®。
Invented in 1965 as a result of research with high performance chemical compounds, Kevlar® was first used commercially in the early 1970s. It was meant to replace steel belts in vehicle tyres, as it is five times stronger than the same weight of steel, does not rust nor corrode and is extremely lightweight. Further developments resulted in Kevlar® being used in bullet proof vests for police officers. Kevlar® can be used as-is, or in the construction of composite component.
Other applications of the compound include underwater cables, brake linings, space vehicles, boats, parachutes, skis, building materials and more.
Kevlar®作为对高性能化学化合物研究的结果,于1965年发明,并在1970年代初首次商用。 最初打算是用以取代汽车轮胎中的钢带,因为它比同样重量的钢强5倍,不锈蚀不腐蚀,并且非常轻。进一步开发让Kevlar®应用到警察防弹背心。Kevlar®可原样使用,或用于构造复合材料部件。
这个合成物的其它应用包括水下电缆,刹车衬片,航天器,船只,降落伞,滑雪板,建筑材料等等。
1977
PET bottles
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) starts from raw petrochemicals: ethylene and paraxylene. Derivatives of these two chemicals react together to produce PET resin. This was first developed in 1941 and originally used in synthetic fibres. It began to be used for packaging in the mid-1960s. In the early 1970s the technique for blowing bottles was developed commercially. This final product is a transparent, strong and lightweight bottle.
聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯(PET)起始于石化原料:乙烯和对二甲苯。这两种化学品的衍生物一起反应生成PET树脂。这在1941年首次研发,最初用于合成纤维。在1960年代中开始用于包装。1970年代初,吹瓶技术商业化开发。其最终产品就是透明,坚固和轻质的瓶子。
Throughout the years, the PET industry has developed alongside the environmental concerns and today it is fully recyclable. The first PET was recycled in 1977 and was turned into a bottle basecup, or the bottle-to-bottle process. Soon however this recovered PET material started to be used for making textile, carpets and non-woven.
PET bottles may contain soft drinks, juices, alchoholic drinks, water, edible oils, household cleaners and other food and non-food applications.
多年来,PET行业一直与环保忧患相行相伴,今天它已是完全可再生的。1977年第一个PET被再生利用,并被转变成瓶底,亦即瓶到瓶工艺。以后不久,这种回收的PET材料则开始用于制造纺织品,地毯和无纺布。
PET瓶可以盛装软饮料,果汁,酒精饮料,水,食用油,家用清洁剂和其他食品和非食品应用。
1988
Conducting polymers导电聚合物
Although research on conducting polymers started in Australia in 1963, the work was considered so important that the 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to three of the leading researchers - Alan J. Heeger, Alan G. MacDiarmid and Hideki Shirakawa - for the discovery and development of conducting polymers.
虽然导电聚合物研究1963年就开始于澳大利亚,但这项工作被认为如此重要,2000年诺贝尔化学奖授予了三位前沿的研究人员 - Alan J. Heeger,Alan G. MacDiarmid和Hideki Shirakawa – 因为他们发现并研发了导电聚合物。
The common belief was that plastics, unlike metals, do not conduct electricity. Yet the prize-winning researchers demonstrated that plastic can, under certain circumstances, behave like a metal. To become electrically conductive, polymers (ie. plastics) must consist alternately of single and double bonds between the atoms. Electrons must be removed or introduced, creating extra electrons that can move along the molecule.
普通理念认为,塑料,不像金属,不导电。然而获奖的研究人员表明,在某些情况下,塑料可以表现得像金属一样。要获得导电性,聚合物(即塑料)必须由原子间的单键和双键交替组成。电子必须被移除或引入,产生可沿着分子移动的额外电子。
Conducting polymers are used for anti-static substances for photographic film, shields for computer screens and for “smart” windows (than can exclude sunlight). Semi-conductive polymers have recently been developed in light-emitting diodes (LEDs), solar cells and used as a display in mobile phones and small TV screens.
导电聚合物可用于照相胶片的防静电物质,计算机屏幕护罩和“智能”窗户(可以遮挡阳光)。 半导体聚合物最近已经应用到发光二极管(LED),太阳能电池,并且用作移动电话和小电视屏的显示器。
Liquid crystal polymer液晶聚合物
The study of liquid crystals began in 1888, when Friedrich Reinitzer, an Austrian plant scientist observed that a material known as cholesteryl benzoate had two different melting points. However, it was not until the last twenty years that this area of research experienced explosive growth, due to the successful applications of liquid crystals for flat-screen TVs and other electronic gadgets.
液晶研究始于1888年,当时奥地利植物科学家Friedrich Reinitzer观察到称为胆甾醇苯甲酸酯的材料具有两种不同的熔点。然而,直到最近二十年,由于液晶在平板电视和其他电子产品中的成功应用,这一研究领域才有爆炸性增长。
Reinitzer noticed that cholesteryl benzoate behaved very strangely. Instead of melting into a clear liquid, Reinitzer saw that cholesteryl benzoate melted at 145°C and became a milky, cloudy liquid. He heated it further, to 179°C, and it became transparent. None of the scientists involved could possibly have dreamed of the applications for this material. It was only in the early 1960s that a research group discovered that liquid crystals could be used for screens and displays.
Reinitzer注意到,胆固醇苯甲酸酯表现得非常奇怪。 Reinitzer观察到胆固醇苯甲酸酯不是熔化成透明的液体,而是在145℃熔化,变成乳状,浑浊的液体。进一步加热,到179℃,它变得透明。没有一个参与的科学家可能梦想到这种材料的应用。只是到1960年代初,一个研究小组发现,液晶可以用于屏幕和显示器。
Liquid crystals are now used in many areas of everyday life. They are used to make the flat screens of laptop computers but also increasingly for desktop PCs. The rapidly increasing mobile phone market uses liquid crystals to make mobile phone screens. Most people don’t realise how much chemical expertise has gone into making an ordinary mobile. Even the toy industry has benefited from liquid crystals, since without chemistry there could never have been a Tamagotchi boom
液晶现在已用于日常生活的许多领域。用于制造笔记本电脑的平板屏幕,但也越来越多地用于台式PC。迅速增长的手机市场使用液晶制作手机屏幕。大多数人不知道有多少化学专业知识融会于一只普通手机的制造。即使是玩具行业也从液晶中获益,因为没有化学,可能永远不会有拓麻歌子宠物鸡热潮 (1996).